Many modern low emission combustion systems suffer from thermoacoustic instabilities, which may lead to customer irritation (noise) or engine damages. The prediction of the frequency response of the flame is oftentimes not straightforward, so that it is common practice to measure the flame response in an experiment. The outcome of the measurement is typically a flame transfer-function (FTF), which can be used in low order acoustic network models to represent the flame. This paper applies an alternative criterion to evaluate the potential of the flame to become instable, the flame-amplification factor (FAF). It is based on an energy balance method and can be directly derived from the measured flame-transfer-matrix (FTM). In order to demonstrate this approach two different kerosene-driven aircraft fuel injectors were measured in the Rolls-Royce SCARLET rig in a single-sector RQL-combustor under realistic operating conditions. Here the multi-microphone method has been applied with acoustic forcing from up- and downstream side to determine the FTM. In contrast to the FTF-approach the full FTM data has been post-processed to derive the FAF. The FAF is then successfully used to rank the fuel injectors regarding their low frequency thermo-acoustic behaviour, because it is proportional to amplitudes of self-excited frequencies in FANN-rig (full annular) configuration.

Thermoacoustic instabilities can occur in a wide range of combustors and are prejudicial since they can lead to increased mechanical fatigue or even catastrophic failure. A well-established formalism to predict the onset, growth and saturation of such instabilities is based on acoustic network models. This approach has been successfully employed to predict the frequency and amplitude of limit cycle oscillations in a variety of combustors. However, it does not provide any physical insight in terms of the acoustic energy balance of the system. On the other hand, Rayleigh’s criterion may be used to quantify the losses, sources and transfers of acoustic energy within and at the boundaries of a combustor. However, this approach is cumbersome for most applications because it requires computing volume and surface integrals and averaging over an oscillation cycle. In this work, a new methodology for studying the acoustic energy balance of a combustor during the onset, growth and saturation of thermoacoustic instabilities is proposed. The two cornerstones of this new framework are the acoustic absorption coefficient Δ and the cycle-to-cycle acoustic energy ratio λ, both of which do not require computing integrals. Used along with a suitable acoustic network model, where the flame frequency response is described using the weakly nonlinear Flame Describing Function (FDF) formalism, these two dimensionless numbers are shown to characterize: 1) the variation of acoustic energy stored within the combustor between two consecutive cycles, 2) the acoustic energy transfers occurring at the combustor’s boundaries and 3) the sources and sinks of acoustic energy located within the combustor. The acoustic energy balance of the well-documented Palies burner is then analyzed during the onset, growth and saturation of thermoacoustic instabilities using this new methodology. It is demonstrated that this new approach allows a deeper understanding of the physical mechanisms at play. For instance, it is possible to determine when the flame acts as an acoustic energy source or sink, where acoustic damping is generated, and if acoustic energy is transmitted through the boundaries of the burner.

The most relevant quality key numbers for the largest and most efficient Gas Turbine Combined Cycles (GTCC) are not (only) the data published by the original engine manufacturers OEM’s. Additional numbers are here evaluated with educated guesses based on published data of the latest announcements of the “big four OEM’s” [8]. Such data are of interest for potential customers but also for nailing down the current state-of-the-art for all kind of further cycle studies using turbomachinery components and also as a contemporary history record. Making educated guesses means thermodynamic 1D simulation based on additional assumptions for pressure losses and other cycle data, which have a limited influence on the (unpublished) target quality numbers, such as: • Mixed turbine inlet temperature Tmix. This is a key value describing the technology level. It can be derived independently of the (unpublished) TCLA value. It is a quality number for the general cooling design and for the secondary air systems. • Polytropic efficiency of the compressor blading. This number describes the aerodynamic quality of the compressor blading. • Polytropic efficiency of the turbine blading. It describes the quality level of both the blading aerodynamics and of the open air cooling design. • Distribution of the exergy losses within the GT and in the bottoming cycle. The exergy losses describe the remaining opportunities for further improvements in the thermodynamic cycle design. But they also indicate its limits. However already the determination of the Tmix is tricky. It depends on the analysis method and on the fluid data applied. The polytropic efficiency of the turbine blading and the exergy losses will depend both on the used methods and on the Tmix found. Achieving a trustable result therefore requires a transparent and reproducible method. In case of application of the found results for performance prediction of similar cycles the same method has to be applied in order to avoid mistakes. In this paper real gas data with consideration of dissociation in equilibrium are used, while the polytropic efficiencies are determined with an incremental method based directly on the classic definitions of Stodola [3] and Dzung [4]. Therefore the still most used method using semi-perfect gas properties and corresponding formulas is bypassed. In order to keep it as simple as possible the evaluation is limited to base load at ISO ambient condition (15°C, 60% relative humidity, sea level). The fuel is limited to pure methane according to the practice in current catalogue data. The main focus is on the gas turbine with its components. The steam bottoming cycle is captured with its effect on the overall exergy and energy balance of the GTCC, which identifies exhaust and condensation losses.

One of the consequences of increasing the efficiency of gas turbine combustors is the higher combustion temperatures within the chamber. Advances on managing larger heat loads have been made to protect the combustor wall and turbines. Among those are thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) deposited on metal walls and forced air cooling such as through effusion holes. Historically, both the flame and TBCs have received a simplified gray treatment using effective absorptivities and emissivities. However, studies have shown that the gray analysis can considerably under-predict the cold metal side temperature resulting in misguided combustor life estimates. In this study, non-gray radiation is compared to gray and black radiation by combining three-dimensional Monte Carlo Ray Tracing (MCRT) solution of non-gray flames in a model gas turbine combustor to one-dimensional energy balance within combustor liners. A recent large eddy simulation (LES) of a gas turbine combustor is analyzed, where both gray and non-gray models are exercised. A two-band spectral model is employed for the TBC, where a translucent band and an opaque band are identified. A line-by-line treatment for gas-phase radiation is adopted, and the incident radiative energy on the combustor wall is collected using the MCRT solver, where the fraction of radiative energy within the translucent band is collected and compared with those obtained from the blackbody assumption. The temperature distributions along the multi-layered combustor wall are computed and parametric comparison is conducted. The effects of the nongray flame radiation are more prominent at elevated pressures than at atmospheric pressure, leading to a difference of approximately 150 K in the prediction of peak temperature on the hot side of the TBC. The gray model is found to over-predict the TBC temperature at downstream locations, but under-predict the TBC temperature near the flame locations. The present study proposes a methodology to estimate the wall temperatures when radiation within the TBC is considered. Future work includes application of the methodology to more realistic combustors where both radiative fluxes and convective fluxes can be accurately captured.

Impingement cooling is a well-established technique to reduce the thermal load of hot gas components in gas turbines. Although the technique is widely used, correlations are nonetheless the standard design method, as the flow field and heat transfer are notoriously difficult to predict with state-of-the-art commercially viable CFD calculations. The primary challenges to CFD are phenomena such as shear layers and crossflow interactions. Therefore, a demand for spatially highly resolved measurements exists. An experimental investigation of a confined row of round jets impinging on a flat surface representative of gas turbine geometries with and without an initial crossflow has been conducted. The effect of the distance between the impingement plate and the target surface as well as the effect of the crossflow flow rate on the interaction of the jets with each other and with the crossflow are assessed. The three-dimensional impingement flow field and the heat transfer characteristics on the target surface are measured. The former has been visualised by Magnetic Resonance Velocimetry (MRV). This measurement technique is relatively novel for engineering applications, but very well suited for low-Mach number flows in complex geometries. It yields millions of measurement points and is thus ideal for a comparison with CFD. The local Nusselt number distribution is obtained using steady-state Thermochromic Liquid Crystals (TLC) on the same test set-up. Secondary losses and errors associated with this method are evaluated by means of an energy balance. The experiments are accompanied by a CFD simulation using an approach typically used for designing impingement configurations in industry as well as a more advanced method.

This paper describes an investigation into the off-design performance comparison of single and two-shaft gas turbine engines. A question that has been asked for a long time which gas turbine delivers a better thermal efficiency at part load. The authors, notwithstanding their intensive searches, were unable to find a comprehensive answer to this question. A detailed investigation was carried out using a state of the art performance evaluation method and the answer was found to be: It depends! In this work, the performance of two engine configurations is assessed. In the first one, the single-shaft gas turbine operates at constant shaft rotational speed. Thus, the shape of the compressor map rotational speed line will have an important influence on the performance of the engine. To explore the implications of the shape of the speed line, two single-shaft cases are examined. The first case is when the speed line is curved and as the compressor pressure ratio falls, the non-dimensional mass flow increases. The second case is when the speed line is vertical and as the compressor pressure ratio falls, the non-dimensional mass flow remains constant. In the second configuration, the two-shaft engine, the two-shafts can be controlled to operate at different rotational speeds and also varying relationships between the rotational speeds. The part-load operation is characterized by a reduction in the gas generator rotational speed. The tool, which was used in this study, is a 0-D whole engine simulation tool, named Turbomatch. It was developed at Cranfield and it is based on mass and energy balance, carried out through an iterative method, which is based on component maps. These generic, experimentally derived maps are scaled to match the design point of a particular engine before an off-design calculation is performed. The code has been validated against experimental data elsewhere, it has been used extensively for academic purposes and the research activities that have taken place at Cranfield University. For an ideal cycle, the single-shaft engine was found to be a clear winner in terms of part-load thermal efficiency. However, this picture changed when realistic component maps were utilized. The basic cycle and the shape of component maps had a profound influence on the outcome. The authors explored the influence of speed line shapes, levels of component efficiencies and the variation of these component efficiencies within the operating range. This paper describes how each one of these factors, individually, influences the outcome.

A modified cone calorimeter for controlled atmosphere combustion was used to investigate the gases released from fixed bed rich combustion of solid biomass. The cone calorimeter was used with 50 kW/m 2 of radiant heat that simulated a larger gasification system. The test specimen in the cone calorimeter is 100mm square and this sits on a load cell so that the mass burn rate can be determined. Pine wood was burned with fixed air ventilation that created rich combustion at 1.5–4 equivalence ratio, Ø. The raw exhaust gas was sampled using a multi-hole gas sample probe in a discharge chimney above the cone heater, connected via heated sample lines, filters and pumps to the heated Gasmet FTIR. The FTIR was calibrated for 60 species, including 40+ hydrocarbons. The hydrogen in the gas was computed from the measured CO concentration using the water-gas shift reaction. The exhaust gas temperature was also measured so that the sensible heat from the gasification zone was included in the energy balance. The GCV of the pine was 18.8 MJ/kg pine and at the optimum Ø the energy in the rich combustion zone gases was 14.5 MJ/kg pine , which is a 77% energy conversion from solid biomass to a gaseous fuel feed for potential gas turbine applications. This conversion efficiency is comparable with the best conventional gasification of biomass and higher than most published conversion efficiencies for coal gasifiers. Of the energy in the gas from the rich combustion 35% was from the CO, 20% from hydrogen, 35% from hydrocarbons and 10% sensible heat. Ash remained in the rich burning gasification zone. As the biomass is a carbon neutral fuel there is no need to convert the gasified gases to hydrogen, with the associated energy losses.

A series of sweeping jet-impingement experiments are conducted over a circular heated surface, with a main objective of understanding the impact of the unique flow field on the resulting heat transfer. The sweeping motion of the fluidic oscillator is influenced by the sweeping frequency and sweeping angle where each is directly dependent on the geometric design (i.e. internal feedback loops, mixing chamber, etc.). The target surface consists of a heated copper disk, where heater power is supplied to the bottom surface of the disk and adjusted until a differential of 30°C is obtained between the jet and target surface temperatures. An energy balance over the target surface temperatures provides a means for calculating area-averaged heat transfer rate, hence Nusselt number. An increase in the sweeping jet’s thermal inertia initiates an augmentation in heat transfer due to sweeping motion of the jet across the target surface. PIV data was acquired for two jet configurations, confined and unconfined, so that the recirculation behavior can be determined. The fluidic oscillator is found to improve only at a low z/d. At large z/d (greater than 4 in this study), the fluidic oscillator adversely affects the heat transfer.

The reduction of fuel consumption and emissions is the most dominant challenge in powertrain development. Therefore, engine and turbocharger have to be matched with high accuracy to achieve optimum powertrain efficiencies. With respect to relevant engine operating points, compressor maps can be measured in full operating range on a standard hot gas test bench. Even though there is no need for extrapolation of the operating range, they have to be corrected for the impact of heat transfer to represent the adiabatic performance of the compressor stage. The common approach to evaluate the turbine efficiency is to apply the energy balance of the entire turbocharger where the turbine power is the sum of the compressor power and the friction losses of the radial and axial journal bearings. The adiabatic compressor power in combination with the calculation of the friction losses by using validated run-up simulations enables the evaluation of the isentropic turbine efficiency and the comparability to CFD simulations of the turbine stage. For reasons of comparability to CFD simulations, which can predict a wide operating range of the turbine stage, the limited measureable turbine operating range is enhanced by a so-called compressor closed loop unit (CCLU). This additional test device enables to vary the demand of compressor power for the same operating points as in the standard mapping and therefore to enlarge the measureable turbine operating range. In combination with proper extrapolation methods, the isentropic turbine efficiency can now be compared to CFD simulations.

From the observation of previous experimental results, it was recognized that the amount of external losses at the external flow paths can be substantial. Understanding the external loss mechanisms, and reducing the external losses are crucial to the design of a high performance S-CO 2 compressor. Therefore, this study first focused on verifying the existing external loss models by estimating the internal loss accurately through a high fidelity CFD calculation and then substituting from the total losses. By analyzing the CFD result and energy balance data obtained from the experiment, the authors are suggesting the best combination of the external loss models for the S-CO 2 compressor. This is followed by the investigation of the condensation effect in the impeller by utilizing a two-phase VOF model with metastable properties. As a result, it is re-confirmed that there is a negligible amount of condensation effect.

Engine downsizing and down-speeding are essential in order to meet future US fuel economy mandates. Turbocharging is one technology to meet these goals. Fuel economy improvements must, however, be achieved without sacrificing performance. One significant factor impacting drivability on turbocharged engines is typically referred to as, “Turbo-Lag”. Since Turbo-lag directly impacts the driver’s torque demands, it is usually perceptible as an undesired slow transient boost response or as a sluggish torque response. High throughput turbochargers are especially susceptible to this dynamic and are often equipped with variable geometry turbines (VGT) to mitigate some of this effect. Assisted boosting techniques that add power directly to the TC shaft from a power source that is independent of the engine have been shown to significantly reduce turbo-lag. Single unit assisted turbochargers are either electrically assisted or hydraulically assisted. In this study a regenerative hydraulically assisted turbocharger (RHAT) system is evaluated. A custom designed RHAT system is coupled to a light duty diesel engine and is analyzed via vehicle and engine simulations for performance and energy requirements over standard test cycles. Supplier provided performance maps for the hydraulic turbine, hydraulic turbo pump were used. A production controller was coupled with the engine model and upgraded to control the engagement and disengagement of RHAT, with energy management strategies. Results show some interesting dynamics and shed light on system capabilities especially with regard to the energy balance between the assist and regenerative functions. Design considerations based on open loop simulations are used for sizing the high pressure accumulator. Simulation results show that the proposed RHAT turbocharger system can significantly improve engine transient response. Vehicle level simulations that include the driveline were also conducted and showed potential for up to 4% fuel economy improvement over the FTP 75 drive cycle. This study also identified some technical challenges related to optimal design and operation of the RHAT. Opportunities for additional fuel economy improvements are also discussed.

The noise generated by the passage of acoustic and entropy perturbations through subsonic and choked nozzle flows is investigated numerically using an energetic approach. Low-order models are used to reproduce the experimental results of the Hot Acoustic Test rig (HAT) of DLR and energy budgets are performed to characterize the reflection, transmission and dissipation of the fluctuations. Because acoustic and entropy perturbations are present in the flow in the general case, classical acoustic energy budgets cannot be used and the disturbances energy budgets proposed by Myers (J. Fluid Mech. 226 (1991) 383–400) are used instead. Numerical results are in very good agreement with the experiments in terms of acoustic transmission and reflection coefficients. The normal shock present in the diffuser for choked regimes is shown to attenuate the scattered acoustic fluctuations, either by pure dissipation effect or by converting a part of the acoustic energy into entropy fluctuations.

In the present study, the entire energy balance of a turbocharger is investigated applying an experimentally validated numerical approach with the intention of examining the heat transfer mechanism inside the turbo. The heat transfer results thus obtained are used amongst others to determine the diabatic effects on the turbine and compressor flow resulting in heat-transfer corrected performance maps. These maps are applied as matching data to 1D engine performance calculation and are utilized in the engine process simulation procedure with GT Power™. In detail, the numerical approach of the entire energy balance is based on a thermal network model (RC-resistance / capacity) where the 3D geometry of the turbocharger is subdivided into segments. These segments are defined as lumped mass elements of the thermal network. The entire energy balance of the modeled turbo is fulfilled by coupling the thermal network of the structure to the enthalpy flows of the turbine, compressor, oil circuit, and water coolant as well as the heat losses to ambient. The heat transfer between the structure and the enthalpy flows, respectively, is achieved by using heat transfer coefficients (HTC) performed in accordance with Nusselt-No. laws. Heat loss to ambient is expressed by natural convection and radiation. In general it would be possible to perform the energy balance of the turbo model in the steady state or transient regime. A time-governed finite volume calculation scheme is used for the solution algorithms. The code of the turbo heat transfer approach (THT) is written in Matlab™, something which facilitates flexible adjustments on the algorithm and good post-processing capabilities. Two routes are resorted to for validating the THT approach. Gas stand tests with instrumented turbochargers using thermocouples and pressure sensors are conducted in the first assignment for generating the essential experimental data. Segmentation of the 3D turbocharger geometry into discrete elements is accomplished in the second assignment by means of CAD technology and used for both, the setup of the THT thermal network model and in parallel for the generation of an AnsysCFX™ 3D CAE model. The same HTC thermal boundary conditions are applied to both models which is favorable in as far as it provides a one-to-one comparison of the heat flux and mean temperature in each segment of the two models, Matlab™ THT and CFX™. Ansys™ model heat flux and mean segment temperature results are validated by the measured experimental temperature data. The THT network model properties such as segment volume, areas, volume, and element distances are calibrated applying the results of the 3D CAD and CAE Ansys™ model. The results of the two numerical models are compared with each other, thus demonstrating the qualitative and quantitative level of agreement. The THT approach that has been developed is successfully applied to GT Power™ gasoline engine model. A thermal network model of that applied turbocharger was setup and validated by gas-stand and engine data obtained on an experimental basis with an instrumented turbo. Finally it was possible to demonstrate that the heat-transfer corrected turbocharger performance map data which was provided utilizing the THT model approach brings about a significant benefit to the determination process aimed at achieving a tailored turbocharger thermodynamic layout.

Since the beginning of the 1950s, manufacturers and operators have struggled to understand, reduce and eliminate compressor fouling and its effects on gas turbine operation. Several devices (inertial separators, barriers, filters, etc.) and strategies (on-line and off-line washing, manual cleaning, etc.) have been adopted in order to limit and/or eliminate the foulants which stick to the compressor blade and vane surfaces. The state of the power plant design and installation and environmental conditions determine the rate of fouling and, in turn, gas turbine performance losses. The types of contaminant (organic or inorganic), their concentration and their ability to stick are variable depending on the weather conditions. Desert, tropical, rural, and off-shore conditions are characterized by different foulants with different characteristics which determine compressor fouling. In this paper, an analysis of the influence of third substances at the particle/surface interface is presented. The analysis is carried out on two different compressor rotors, transonic and subsonic. Firstly, a sensitivity analysis is proposed related to the particle diameter and foulant mixture in order to highlight the influence of air humidity due to environmental conditions or the pressure drop after the filtration stages. The effects of a water electrolytic solution (generated by the presence of inorganic matter) and a water surfactant solution (used in the case of washing) are also considered. In this case, the properties of the mixture substance (solid particles bound by a liquid film) are considered. Secondly, using previous numerical analyses (particle-laden flow with a Eulerian-Lagrangian approach) as a starting point, the variation in particle sticking ability is evaluated against the presence of third substances (water solutions and oily substances) and the particle kinematic characteristics using a sticking model based on an energy balance equation. The results show the influence of the third substance on particle sticking capability using a susceptibility-to-fouling criterion. Particularly in the presence of humid conditions, sticking capability increases with respect to dry conditions, even though the major effects are due to the mixture viscosity and not only to the presence of liquid water. The sticking capability of the mixture varies according to particle diameter as a function of the particle normal velocity. The results are presented in order to easily quantify the effects of the presence of a third substance at the particle/surface interface according to the type of liquid phase involved in the sticking process.

An academic configuration of a single airfoil and a flat casing with clearance, put in the potential core of a jet at Re c = 9.3 × 10 5 , is studied in order to analyse the turbulence modelling. A zonal large-eddy simulation (ZLES), validated against experimental results, is considered as a reference to evaluate two steady Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) simulations. Both RANS simulations use the original Wilcox k-ω model. They differ on the constitutive relation: one uses the classical Boussinesq constitutive relation, while the other relies on the quadratic constitutive relation (QCR). The analysis focuses on the mean velocities, the Reynolds stresses and a term-to-term decomposition of the turbulent kinetic energy budget on a plane through the clearance. RANS represents quite well the mean velocities, but under-estimates the Reynolds stresses, thus under-estimates every turbulent kinetic energy budget term. The QCR has little effect on the flow and the turbulent quantities. The method allowed a fine analysis of the physics of the turbulence.

A multi-physics simulation combining large-eddy simulation, conjugate heat transfer and radiative heat transfer is used to predict the wall temperature field of a confined premixed swirling flame operating under atmospheric pressure. The combustion model accounts for the effect of enthalpy defect on the flame structure whose stabilization is here sensitive to the wall heat losses. The conjugate heat transfer is accounted for by solving the heat conduction within the combustor walls and with the Hybrid-Cell Neumann-Dirichlet coupling method, enabling to dynamically adapt the coupling period. The exact radiative heat transfer equation is solved with an advanced Monte Carlo method with a local control of the statistical error. The coupled simulation is carried out with or without accounting for radiation. Excellent results for the wall temperature are achieved by the fully coupled simulation which are then further analyzed in terms of radiative effects, global energy budget and fluctuations of wall heat flux and temperature.

The Externally Fired Gas Turbine (EFGT) systems allows the use of unrefined fuels, such as biomass and waste in cogeneration arrangement for adequate efficiencies and high reliability, with respect to internal combustion systems based on gasification. The technology has some technological barriers related to thermal and mechanical resistance of the high temperature heat exchanger (HTHE), which is subject to fouling and corrosion phenomena of the parts exposed to flue gas and fly ash deposits. In this paper an investigation aimed to optimize a 100 kWel, Externally Fired micro Gas Turbine (EFmGT) for combined heat and power generation is presented and discussed. A techno-economic analysis was performed for different plant layouts which are energetically analysed for the case of complete external combustion and co-firing with natural gas, comparing power production, electrical and global efficiency. Each layout was studied by means of mass and energy balance. An economic analysis is also provided, focused on a comparison of initial investment, NPV and IRR. In the economic analysis the best feed in tariff for energetic valorisation of residual biomass was used to calculate the revenue of electric energy generated from biomass.

The forced response of high-pressure sCO 2 radial-inflow turbine blisk is studied with regards to internal mistuning and inherent characteristics of supercritical Brayton cycle. A novel preliminary meanline analysis led to the generation of turbine designs for the sCO 2 Brayton cycle with respect to concentrating solar power (CSP) applications. Details of mentioned study are published in a separate paper. The sCO 2 turbine with a pressure ratio of 2.2 and the mild inlet temperature of 560 C is studied for rotational speed ranging between 75000 and 125000 RPM. Aiming to achieve an enhanced understanding of the fluid-structure-interaction in sCO 2 radial-inflow turbine, a numerical method capable of predicting the forced responses of tuned and intentionally mistuned blisks due to aerodynamic excitation is presented. The numerical work involves the simulation of the transient flow field, and then the unsteady aerodynamic excitation forces on the blades are determined by modelling various resonance condition, including the influence of the operating condition and stator number. Performing the forced response of the structure, the transient and spatially resolved pressure distribution is used as a boundary condition in an FE model. As a result, the response amplifications of sCO 2 turbines are eventually compared. The similar geometrical turbine was designed and manufactured to be operated in subcritical state for the sake of validation. The results of the subcritical turbine are derived by means of experimental and numerical analyses. To update the effect of mistuning in the FE model, blade by blade measurements using the example of a subcritical turbine blisk is performed and results of well correlated FRFs are used as inputs to adjust the blade individual Young’s modulus. The tendency of results is approved by previous works done in subcritical state. The structural damping information to be considered in the update process is taken from results of an experimental modal analysis and the aerodynamic damping induced by blade vibration is computed using an energy balance technique. It has been found that increase of the maximum forced response beyond that of the sCO 2 turbine with higher rotational speed is not significant due to the existence of high pressure-density sCO 2 . This implies an occurrence of high aerodynamic damping which would cause a low vibrational amplitude in case of a mistuned blisk. Considering aeroelastic coupling, in supercritical turbine with small mistuning, no change of maximum response magnitudes is achieved for the fundamental bending mode; however, with large mistuning pattern, aerodynamic damping can cause significantly better response level. This result indicates considerable contrast with responses obtained from subcritical model which would be expressed by either characteristic or state of working fluid.

Preliminary combustor design usually requires that an extensive number of geometrical and operational conditions be evaluated and compared. During this phase important parameters the designer sought after are typically the mass flow rate distribution through air admission holes, associated pressure losses as well as liner wall temperatures. The process is therefore iterative in nature and can become expensive in terms of engineering analysis cost considering the time required to build and execute 3D CFD models. Network codes have the potential to fill the gap during this stage of the design since they can be setup and solved in timeframes that are orders of magnitude less than comprehensive CFD models, essentially leading to cost savings since overall less time is spent on 3D simulations and rig tests. An additional advantage using this approach is that results from the network solution can be applied as boundary conditions to subsequent more detailed 3D models. In this study a commercial flow network tool, Flownex ® , was used to model a complete combustor including flow distribution, combustion and heat transfer. The integrated mass, momentum and energy balance is solved using the continuity, momentum and energy equations applied to nodes and elements. These nodes and elements are the modular building blocks, typically semi-empirical and allow users to either select appropriate built-in correlations, or to define using specific equations through scripting. Flow equations are fully compressible and applied to the gas mixture. The chemical composition of the reactants forming during combustion as well as the adiabatic flame temperature is determined from the NASA CEA package incorporated into the solution. Heat transfer mechanisms included in the model are gas-surface radiation, film convection, forced convection in ducts, surface-surface radiation, and 2D axially-symmetric conduction through solid walls. Results produced from the network were compared with test data obtained from the NASA E3 development combustor. Overall good agreement resulted, showcasing the success of the approach followed.

Incidents of partial or total thrust loss due to engine icing at cruise have been recorded over past several years. These events increase the demand for better understanding of compressor dynamics under such conditions. In the present study, physics based compressor blade row model (BRM) is used to evaluate the effect of booster ice-shed on axial high pressure compressor (HPC) at flight and approach idling conditions (65%–82% Nc). A representative aviation high-bypass turbofan engine HPC is used in this study. Transient behavior of compressor with varying ice ingestion conditions is compared and inter-stage dynamics is analyzed. Stage re-matching occurs due to heat exchange between air and ice which dictates the stall inception stage in the compressor. It is found that although T3 drop is closely related to compressor stall inception, the transient mechanism of ice-shed also plays an important role. Comparisons are made with steady energy balance equation to determine total water content (TWC) at HPC inlet to emphasize the importance of compressor transients. The ice amount, its ingestion duration and rate affect the onset of stall. HPC might sustain through a slower ice-shed while a faster ice-shed can lead to compressor stall with little or no chances of recovery. Understanding this transient behavior and inter-stage dynamics due to ice-shed will help in designing and implementing passive or active stall control mechanisms.